The World Bank says that by 2036, towns and cities of India will collectively have 600 million people, which would be roughly 40 per cent of its population. It is expected to breach the level of 50 per cent  in 2047 when the Government of India expects the country to become a developed nation.  To accommodate the demands of this fast-paced urbanisation, India needs to devise better, smarter and sustainable ways of improving the present water-stressed situation. 

At present, the status of water in urban areas of India is not at all assuring. For example, nearly 42 per cent of households in urban areas didn’t have access to piped water connections inside their premises as per the 78th round of the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) of 2020-21 and 24 per cent urban households were without access to an ‘improved source of drinking water’ that provided sufficient amount of water throughout the year. By 2050, thirty cities in India will be facing ‘severe water risk’ as per an assessment by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) published in 2020 which included Bengaluru, Bhopal, Delhi, Mumbai, Rajkot and Vadodara. A study on global urban water scarcity projects that India could emerge as the most severely affected country in terms of growth in water-scarce urban population by 2050.

Why is the water situation in urban India getting increasingly problematic? Let’s have a look at the factors responsible for this situation. 

In 2019, research conducted by the World Resources Institute (WRI) found that India was among 25 countries globally that experienced ‘extremely high water stress’ annually, meaning it uses over 80 per cent of its renewable water supply for irrigation, livestock, industry and domestic needs. This results in highly distressing situations in cities like Delhi, Chennai and Bengaluru which run out of water, and as a result, prompts the local authorities to shut off the taps temporarily. The Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) developed by NITI Aayog observed in 2018 that 21 major cities are expected to run out of groundwater thereby creating a situation of severe water scarcity for hundreds of millions living in those urban centres.  

The CWMI report further stated that roughly 72 per cent of all water sources in the country are contaminated because wastewater is released untreated to the open spaces which pollutes the surface (viz., ponds, lakes, wetlands and rivers) as well as groundwater.  Roughly 45 per cent of urban water consumption comes from groundwater which makes India the world’s largest consumer of groundwater.

It has resulted in severe depletion of groundwater in several parts of the country which could pose a serious threat to food and water security in the long run. This is one of the major contributing factors to water-related problems in all mega cities - Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Chennai – which has already taken many secondary cities like Ahmedabad, Surat, Indore, Jaipur, Vadodara, Nagpur, Lucknow, Coimbatore, Nashik, Thiruvananthapuram, Varanasi and Visakhapatnam in its grip.  

Urban areas have more paved surfaces and high deforestation to meet the needs of infrastructure. Hence, urban centres generally experience high surface runoff (have low permeability) which leads to decreased groundwater recharge. This condition, together with the unregulated nature of groundwater use has exacerbated the alarming groundwater depletion levels in cities and towns of the country.

A report by the Council on Energy, Environment, and Water (CEEW) states that 11 out of the 15 major river basins will experience water stress by 2025 which would mean per capita annual water availability from renewable sources below 1,700 cubic meters which is considered as the minimum required quantity to meet the water demands of any population. Although the projected total water demand is about 1,100 cubic meters in the same year, challenges such as excessive use of water, loss of water during supply and distribution, non-availability of enough storage capacity, and pollution of surface water sources are contributing to the water stress conditions being experienced throughout the country, especially in the densely populated cities. 

India aspires to be a developed nation by 2047 and a significant part of its economic growth gets generated in its cities. People also aspire to live in urban areas which is why these spaces are growing rapidly. In addition, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 also calls for providing adequate safe drinking water to the citizens so that no one is left behind. There is a need to come up with an integrated, multi-pronged approach to cater to the future needs of economic growth, social aspirations as well as towards enhancing liveability in cities. 

India generates about 72,368 million litres of waste water per day in urban areas alone which is expected to grow further with an increase in population. Of this, only 28 per cent is treated. The rest is discharged as untreated water into natural water bodies, impacting the lives of communities living in the downstream areas. The reuse of treated wastewater can act as a crucial resource to meet the rising demands across different sectors which in turn could reduce the pressure on freshwater demand.

As climate change concerns grow in the country and its effects are already visible through its impact on the availability of water, increasing use of treated water in construction, watering greenspaces, for agricultural purposes, etc. will make urban water availability more reliable. This will need active engagement with different stakeholders to bring in changes that would become an established practice. The Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0 envisages that at least 20 per cent of a city’s water demand, and 40 per cent of the total industrial water demand at the state level should be met by treated wastewater.

As the country walks into the future, more intense extreme rainfall events in a shorter period are expected to impose challenges for existing stormwater management capacity in cities. When it occurs, more rainfall will need to be managed over shorter periods than what is being done currently, stretching the capacity of current stormwater systems to cope with higher amounts of flow. Effective stormwater management often involves interfaces between the Urban Local Body (ULB), the relevant agency that provides technical solutions, catchment management authorities and the concerned government department. Effective management of these interfaces will be a prerequisite for success in managing, storage for future use, and productive use of stormwater including groundwater recharge, and the development of more green spaces or patches in urban areas which will help fight climate change.

Groundwater extraction is happening in India at alarming rates which leads to massive depletion of groundwater reserves. In urban areas, extraction is much more than its recharge due to the low permeability of surface areas. This doesn’t allow adequate recharge of aquifers which pushes the level of groundwater further down. In order to mitigate the challenges, there needs to be specific policies and regulations for groundwater management such as decoupling rights over groundwater from land rights. The ULBs need to step in effectively supported by the state government to help in identifying the depletion hotspots and to execute economical solutions for the conservation and recharge of groundwater such as rainwater harvesting and protecting wetlands which could be helpful in augmenting a city’s drinking water supply capacity.

The AMRUT 2.0 has suggested that all cities must prepare their City Water Balance Plans (CWBPs) which should provide the status of water sources, the quantum of water available, water demand and supply in the city, and the deficit. The ultimate aim of preparing a CWBP is to formulate projects to address water deficit. Water supply utilities need to prepare water accounts and water balances as a priority. For example, there are many cities where groundwater has become so contaminated that it cannot be used. Many cities like Bhubaneswar are located near rivers from where they draw water for cities. All these factors must be considered while developing CWBPs.  

Water loss due to wastage, theft and leakages in the distribution network imposes a big burden on the water supply system. It is known as Non-Revenue Water (NRW) because the cost of water loss is never recovered. Water utilities in recent years have noted chronic water losses as a significant challenge brought to the forefront due to the rapid urbanisation of cities across India, and the negative impacts of climate change resulting in increasing demand on the face of decreasing availability of water. In India, the average NRW is around 38% which is above the global average of around 30%. It needs to be brought below 20% to confirm with the national Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) standards which is achieved by all well-performing water service utilities in developed countries. Achieving this would result in the availability of more water ready to be consumed by the end-users.

A significant proportion of the urban households are levied a monthly charge for public water supply at present. However, water tariffs for domestic consumption have been highly subsidised leading to its inefficient use. It is high time that water tariffs were revised and water usage was charged based on consumption volume. A Water Regulatory Authority must be set up in each state so that it plays a direct role in setting the water tariff for various purposes including domestic water consumption. Water tariffs should be able to cover operation and maintenance costs, water supply infrastructure repayment, and contribute to capital development.

To ensure water security for marginalised households, targeted subsidies may be considered. At present, poor households living in cities may be paying more for water as many of them do not have access to piped water connections. Hence, they are forced to depend on private vendors to meet their needs for domestic consumption.

Currently, all these aspects in the urban water sector are managed in silos. Different agencies look after different subjects in a fragmented manner when all water forms an integrated whole. Hence, it would be of immense benefit to treat water as one integrated resource of the nation. There is an urgent requirement to develop an Integrated Water Management Framework (IWMF) that manages all its aspects and uses - agriculture, domestic, industry, wastewater, stormwater, surface water, and groundwater.

All states and urban bodies could then implement their water management plan as per this broad framework by bringing necessary variations depending on a number of factors which they will record in their city-level management framework. This will help generate the necessary data for holistic water management and pricing for all types of consumers. 

As our economic progress, livelihoods, food security and the very lifeline of people depend significantly on water, prioritising water resources will pave the way for India to achieve the status of a developed nation in future.  
 
(The author is a Bhubaneswar-based policy researcher, social development practitioner and public narrative builder. Views expressed are personal.)