India's Nuclear Journey: 'Buddha Smiled' To 'Net Zero'

The underground test at Pokhran (also spelt as Pokaran), in the middle of the Thar desert, was as much a statement of scientific autonomy, as it was a geopolitical manoeuvre. The nuclear experiment at 8.30 am, officially described as a “peaceful nuclear explosion”, was overseen by scientists and Army personnel and camouflaged in a shroud of mystery till it actually took place.

The country’s state-run broadcaster — All India Radio — announced: “At 8:05 this morning, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear explosion for peaceful purposes at a carefully chosen site in western India.” On Sunday, May 18, India will celebrate the 51st anniversary of that quiet announcement which changed the world’s power balance.

However, beyond the headlines and diplomatic earthquake the news had brought, the moment also seeded India's ambitious and evolving civil nuclear energy programme. Over the next five decades, India has steadily, though cautiously, pursued the promise of nuclear power — not just as a deterrent, but as a tool for energy security and climate responsibility.

Through the 1980s and 1990s, India quietly laid the groundwork for a self-reliant nuclear energy programme. A central part of this vision was the expansion of Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), which relied on natural uranium and heavy water, resources India could source independently.

At the same time, India focussed on nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha's visionary three-stage nuclear programme, which called for PHWRs using natural uranium in the first phase; Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs) using plutonium after that; and in a third, ambitious phase — a plan to harness thorium, a resource India possesses in abundance on its sea beaches, but which remains technologically challenging to exploit.

Almost the entire Western and Communist worlds shunned India’s nuclear programme. Companies that participated in it were also sanctioned. Despite the determined international opposition, India pressed forward. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL) was set up in 1987, and by 1998, India had 10 operational nuclear reactors.

While the total capacity remained modest compared to India's energy demands, the infrastructure and institutional base for nuclear power had been firmly established.

Then came Pokhran-II in May 1998 — a series of five nuclear tests that openly demonstrated India’s nuclear weapons capability. Once again, sanctions followed — but this time, the tests resulted in the start of a strategic dialogue, which, over the next decade, culminated in a historic breakthrough — the Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement of 2008.

This accord, after years of negotiations, formally recognised India as a responsible nuclear power, even though it hadn't signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty. It unlocked access to global nuclear fuel markets and advanced reactor technologies, and enabled cooperation with all big powers.

At home, the agreement catalysed policy reforms. The Atomic Energy Act was amended, allowing limited private and foreign collaboration in reactor construction and segments of the fuel cycle. Doors opened, albeit slightly.

From 2008 to 2020, India pursued numerous international reactor deals. Commercial pacts were signed with Russia (for the Koodankulam power plant), France (for the Jaitapur project), and US firms like Westinghouse and GE-Hitachi.

These projects aimed to add gigawatts of nuclear capacity to India’s grid, promising a clean and reliable energy source for a growing population. Yet, progress was slower than anticipated. Public resistance, particularly around land acquisition and environmental concerns, posed significant obstacles.

A major legislative hurdle also emerged: The Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, which introduced a liability clause that made foreign suppliers wary of investing.

Still, there were successes — Koodankulam Units 1 and 2, constructed with Russian support, were brought online. NPCIL continued to build home-made PHWRs in states like Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka.

A major scientific milestone was also nearing completion: The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam — a pivotal step toward the second stage of the three-stage plan — bringing India closer to realising a closed fuel cycle.

By the early 2020s, India committed itself to Net Zero emissions by 2070, and facing increasingly volatile coal supplies, decided to give a renewed thrust to nuclear energy. Between 2020 and 2025, construction of 14 new reactors was either begun or approved, which aimed at raising total capacity to 22 GW by 2031.

The government also increased budgetary support for domestic reactor development, and began exploring Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) — compact, scalable, and inherently safer technologies suited to India’s regional power needs.

Public-private partnerships (PPP) began to gain traction. Meanwhile, thorium research saw renewed investment, particularly in the Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) project — an effort to finally bring the third stage of Bhabha’s vision into operational reality.

India now operates 23 nuclear reactors, producing over 7.5 GW of power. Though nuclear still constitutes a small fraction of India’s overall energy mix, it plays a unique and vital role in providing baseload power that is both low-carbon and strategically autonomous.

The Buddha smiled in 1974. half-a-century later, India’s nuclear future may finally be ready to shine.