The India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2023 notes that the country’s total forest and tree cover stood at approximately 24.62 per cent and 2.89 per cent of the geographical area, respectively, showing an increase of 0.65 per cent (2,261 sq. km) since the ISFR 2021.

India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) also commit to creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent, through enhanced forest and tree cover, by 2030. These targets underscore the central role forests play in achieving India’s climate ambitions.

Yet, the challenge remains as to how to realise these commitments in a way that sustains both ecosystems and communities.

So far, conservation efforts have largely relied on plantation drives, supported by funds such as those under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA). The ISFR 2023 highlights that the “Very Dense Forests” constitute 3.04 per cent of the geographical area, “Moderately Dense Forests” 9.28 per cent, and “Open Forests” 9.44 per cent.

Monoculture Plantations

Much of the recorded growth in “forest cover” comes from monoculture plantations, often eucalyptus or acacia, which are planted on degraded lands or community commons. These green patches observed through satellite images and maps are indeed important and play a crucial role.

Yet, ecologists warn that they are ecological deserts characterised by a paucity of biodiversity, poor carbon sequestration and, in many cases, guzzling groundwater instead of replenishing it.

By contrast, natural forests provide a suite of irreplaceable ecological services. They sustain the biodiversity, regulate local hydrological cycles, enrich soil fertility, act as resilient carbon sinks, and support the cultural and subsistence needs of forest-dependent or dwelling communities.

Thus, unlike monocultures, natural forests foster ecological balance, making them indispensable to any long-term conservation strategy.

Community Role

However, the plantation-centric focus is only half the story. It is equally important to consider how communities are incorporated into conservation efforts. Instances have been reported where tribal villages face displacement or restrictions due to forests “reclaimed” for compensatory plantations.

For example, under reforms such as the Forest Rights Act (2006), forest dwellers were legally granted Individual and community forest resource (CFR) rights. In principle, this recognised their role as stewards.

In practice, however, scholars highlight how many communities were “responsibilised” rather than empowered.

This marks a definite shift in onus and responsibility, resulting in a disproportionate burden on those for whom the welfare schemes are introduced in the first place.

Ecosystems Must Be Regenerated   

The result? A conservation model hinged on the hectares planted, and not the ecosystems regenerated — a model in which forests are measured in numbers, but not lived in. 

Communities require the capacity to function as self-sufficient and semi-autonomous agents of their own welfare and forest stewardship.

Forest Bureaucracy

To understand why the technocratic model persists, we must enter the world of forest bureaucracy. Generations of Indian Forest Service officers have been trained to equate standing trees with forests. This is reflected in acts such as budgets sanctioned, saplings distributed, and hectares planted, which consequently show tangible progress and highlight bureaucratic efficiency.

These measures are also politically attractive, since plantation drives can be inaugurated and claimed as "successful" within a year.

But the survivability of plantations remains a challenge, wherein saplings often fail to survive beyond the first few years. In regions such as Gujarat, for instance, plantations have been damaged or destroyed by nilgai (blue bulls), undermining their long-term impact.

A sustainable way forward could involve systematic monitoring of plantations for at least three years, ensuring that what is planted actually survives and matures into a functional forest cover.

The central question, then, is not whether India should pursue ambitious forest cover targets, but how.

Several innovative approaches, ranging from community-managed forests, natural regeneration, agroforestry models, and rewilding efforts, offer promising pathways.

Alternatives That Work

If we are to rethink conservation, India must draw inspiration from models that are not only ecologically sound and socially just but also practically scalable.

Here are some alternatives already taking root:

Miyawaki Forests

The Miyawaki method was pioneered in Japan, and seeks to promote dense plantations of native species that mimic natural forest succession. By planting dense clusters of native species, these forests grow up to 10 times faster and sustain much higher biodiversity than conventional plantations. It has been embraced by Indian citizen groups to create mini-forests in urban and peri-urban areas, since it requires only about 1,000 square feet to create a thriving micro-forest. 

Rewilding

Perhaps the most radical yet necessary shift is to let forests regenerate on their own. Sometimes, the best conservation strategy is to step back. Research shows that degraded Indian forests often harbour seed banks and rootstock that can regenerate naturally once pressure is removed. Rewilding corridors can restore connectivity, revive keystone species, and allow ecosystems to heal without the interventionist zeal of plantations. Modern tools like GIS (Geographic Information Systems) can map forest regrowth and connectivity, ensuring better monitoring of rewilded landscapes.

Permaculture & Agroecology

Agriculture uses 80 per cent of India’s freshwater and occupies vast land areas. Instead of treating farming as separate from conservation, agroecology integrates the two. In Andhra Pradesh, the state has backed the “Zero Budget Natural Farming” movement reducing chemical use and improving soil health. India’s climate-smart agriculture can utilize agroecology.

Permaculture is an agro-ecological philosophy that moves beyond farming and advocates working with, not against, nature, living with ecological cycles. It promotes soil regeneration, water, and biodiversity conservation. Permaculture farms in Telangana and Karnataka have shown how barren lands can be revived into food forests that sustain livelihoods while regenerating biodiversity. Local governments can integrate permaculture training into agriculture extension services. Financially, MGNREGA funds for soil and water conservation could support permaculture initiatives at the village level, making them part of India’s rural development backbone. Furthermore, linking these approaches with PM-Kisan and crop insurance schemes can incentivise farmers to conserve biodiversity as part of agriculture.

Community Forest Management (CFM)

Across Odisha and Maharashtra, villagers have been protecting forests through community patrols and rules often more effectively than the Forest Department. Van Panchayats in Uttarakhand have been a stellar example of community-owned forest management. Studies show that CFM areas have healthier forest cover and stronger biodiversity outcomes than state-managed forest with reduced illegal logging and sustainable use of non-timber forest products. Recognising CFM formally under FRA and linking them with carbon credit schemes can give communities both rights and resources.

Global Practices

We can also learn from the best practices across the globe. In the 1990s, Costa Rica pioneered a national ‘payment for ecosystem services programme’ that directly compensates landowners and communities for conserving forests, reforesting degraded areas, and maintaining watershed services. Funded through a small fuel tax and international carbon credits, PES has contributed to doubling Costa Rica’s Forest cover from around 25 per cent in the 1980s to more than 50 per cent today. The model demonstrates how financial incentives and clear valuation of ecosystem services can align local livelihoods with conservation outcomes.

In the Brazilian Amazon, extractive reserves (RESEX) were created to protect both forests and the rights of forest-dependent communities, particularly rubber tappers. These reserves allow communities to sustainably harvest forest produce such as latex, nuts, fruits, and medicinal plants in a manner that also prevents large-scale deforestation. 

The Way Forward

Needless to say, the above-listed alternatives are indicative and not exhaustive. Other innovative models, such as citizen-led “tree commons” in villages or urban biodiversity councils, also hold promise. What is critical is that these pathways offer us a perspective to re-think our approach to forest management, and we must ensure that success stories are promoted, scaled, and mainstreamed, especially those that are less resource-heavy, non-problematic, and community-driven. Furthermore, the next-generation solutions can be mainstreamed in official policy toolkits.

The lesson is simple: forests thrive when communities are empowered, incentivised, and given secure rights.

Thus, India’s conservation future lies not in hectares of plantations alone, but in fostering People’s Forests where ecology, livelihoods, and citizen stewardship grow hand in hand.

(The writer is a research fellow at IIM-Ahmedabad. Views are personal.)